تبیین مدل مفهومی برنامه‌ریزی شهری درمانگر استرس

نوع مقاله : مروری

نویسندگان

1 ‌‌دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد، مهندسی شهرسازی گرایش برنامه‌ریزی شهری، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران، ایران

2 استاد، شهرسازی، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران، ایران

3 استادیار، شهرسازی، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران، ایران

چکیده

مقدمه
شهرها با سرعت بسیار زیادی به‌ویژه در مناطق شمال شرقی آفریقا و جنوب غربی آسیا در حال گسترش هستند [1]. در سال 2007، جمعیت شهری جهان برای نخستین‌بار در تاریخ از 50 درصد پیشی گرفت و این نسبت همواره در حال رشد است [2]. با توجه به پیش‌بینی‌های انجام‌شده در سال 2050 حدود 70 درصد جمعیت جهان در شهر‌ها زندگی خواهند کرد [3] و حدود 90 درصد این رشد در آفریقا و آسیا اتفاق خواهد افتاد [4]. با وجود اینکه زیرساخت‌ها، شرایط اقتصادی اجتماعی، تغذیه و خدمات مراقبت‌های بهداشتی در شهرها بهتر از مناطق روستایی است، اما زندگی در یک محیط شهری از دیرباز به عنوان یک عامل خطر برای بیماری‌های روانی شناخته شده است [5]. با توجه به مزیت‌های یادشده ایجاد تعادل بین این دو موضوع نیازمند درک بهتر تعامل بین زندگی شهری و سلامت روان است [6]. تأثیر شهرنشینی بر سلامت روان بسیار قابل توجه بوده و با توجه به پیش‌بینی افزایش جمعیت شهری به احتمال زیاد طی چند دهۀ آینده افزایش خواهد یافت [1]. سلامت روان با توجه به نقش آن به عنوان یک جزء ضروری از سلامت عمومی موضوع بسیار مهمی است و تأثیرات عمیقی بر افراد، جوامع، و اقتصاد دارد [7] و ارتقای آن برای بالا بردن سطح کیفیت زندگی و تاب‌آوری جامعه ضروری است [8]. بر اساس گزارش سازمان بهداشت جهانی اختلالات سلامت روان در سال 2020 به یکی از تهدیدهای بزرگ برای سلامت انسان مبدل شده است. این امر همچنین پیامدهایی برای رونق اقتصادی دارد، چرا که استرس، افسردگی و اضطراب تأثیر بسیاری بر بازده کاری افراد دارد [9]. همچنین، از هر پنج بزرگسال در جهان یک نفر از یک اختلال روانی رنج می‌برد [10] و 13 درصد از بیماری‌های جهانی منشأ روانی دارند [11]. اهمیت رابطۀ زندگی شهری و سلامت روان به اندازه‌ای است که انجمن جهانی روانپزشکی برای مطالعۀ بیشتر آن بخش علمی سلامت روان شهری را تأسیس کرده است [12]. با توجه به پیمایش ملی سلامت روان کشور ایران 23/6 درصد افرادی که مورد بررسی قرار گرفته‌اند، نیازمند مداخلات روان‌شناختی هستند و 14/6 درصد افراد از اختلال اضطرابی رنج می‌برند [13]. در حالی که مطالعات کمی به پیوندهای بالقوه بین جنبه‌های محیط ساخته‌شده و سلامت روان پرداخته‌اند و مطالعات این حوزه بیشتر بر سلامت جسمی متمرکز بوده‌اند [14]. 
قرار گرفتن در معرض استرس زیاد و آسیب‌های ناشی از آن مهم‌ترین عامل افزایش خطر اختلالات روانی است [15]. ساکنان شهر در معرض سطوح بالاتری از عوامل استرس‌زا قرار می‌گیرند و مواجهه با استرس بیشتر ممکن است موجب شیوع بیماری‌های روانی مرتبط با استرس در میان ساکنان شهر باشد [16]. در واقع، استرس زندگی شهری مدرن می‌تواند زمینه‌ای برای پرورش روان‌پریشی و اختلالات روانی باشد [17]. استرس شهری علاوه بر اینکه از عوامل مهم ایجاد بیماری‌های جسمی (نظیر انواع سرطان، بیماری‌های قلبی و عروقی، بیماری‌های گوارشی) و بیماری‌های روانی (نظیر افسردگی، اسکیزوفرنی، انزوای افراد و...) است، میزان ناهنجاری‌های اخلاقی را نیز افزایش داده و موجب کاهش امنیت شهروندان می‌شود. علاوه بر این، استرس به دلیل تحمیل هزینه‌های درمانی زیاد به شهروندان موجب از دست رفتن سرمایه‌های انسانی در شهر نیز می‌شود. به همین دلیل لازم است برنامه‌ریزان و طراحان شهری در برنامه‌ها و طرح‌های خود آرامش روانی شهروندان را به عنوان اصلی مهم در نظر بگیرند و از اقداماتی که به این آشفتگی ذهنی دامن می‌زند، بپرهیزند. در واقع، با توجه به اینکه ایجاد یک محیط شهری سالم در اولویت اصلی سیاست‌گذاران قرار دارد [18] و استرس شهری در شهرهای جهان رو به افزایش است [19] به تدوین یک شهرنشینی برنامه‌ریزی‌شده برای جلوگیری از اثرات منفی زندگی شهری نیاز است [20]. از ابتدای قرن 20 مطالعات بسیاری به بررسی رابطۀ شهرنشینی و استرس و راهکارهای مؤثر بر آن با رویکرد‌های متفاوت پرداخته‌اند. اما تا کنون هیچ مطالعه‌ای در راستای برنامه‌ریزی شهری درمانگر استرس به صورتی که همۀ شاخص‌های مؤثر بر استرس شهری را در نظر بگیرد و بر اساس ارتباطات میان آن‌ها مهم‌ترین شاخص‌ها را کشف و مدل مفهومی مؤثر بر آن را ارائه دهد، انجام نشده است. به همین منظور، این پژوهش با هدف تحلیل محتوا مطالعات پیشین و شناسایی مهم‌ترین شاخص‌ها و ارائۀ مدل مفهومی برنامه‌ریزی شهری درمانگر استرس انجام شده است.
مواد و روش
این پژوهش از نوع مروری بوده و روش تحقیق در آن کیفی است.  برای جمع‌آوری داده‌ها از مطالعات اسنادی و کتابخانه‌ای و به منظور تحلیل آن‌ها از شیوۀ تحلیل محتوا استفاده شده است. در واقع، این پژوهش در چهار گام اساسی با استفاده از یک رویکرد تفسیری اسناد کتابخانه‌ای را تحلیل و بر اساس کدهای متنی استخراج‌شده سعی در شناسایی، تحلیل و تشریح ارتباطات میان شاخص‌های برنامه‌ریزی شهری درمانگر استرس دارد.
یافته‌ها
یافته‌های پژوهش بیانگر آن است که سلامت روان شهری و استرس شهری دارای تأثیرات دو‌جانبه مستقیم و غیرمستقیم هستند. شاخص‌های مستخرج از مطالعات نظری در دو گروه دسته‌بندی می‌شوند. گروه اول افزایندۀ استرس شهری و به تبع آن، کاهندۀ سلامت روان شهری بوده و شامل محرومیت فرهنگی و روانی، تراکم ساختمانی، اضافه بار حسی، سبک معماری مدرن، تراکم رفت و آمد (شلوغی معابر)، طراحی شهری استرس‌زا، آلودگی هوا، مهاجرت، جرم و جنایت، محرومیت اجتماعی، خشونت، محرومیت اقتصادی، اقلیت قومی بودن، تراکم جمعیتی، میزان فشار زمان و اتلاف وقت و آلودگی صوتی است. گروه دوم کاهندۀ استرس شهری هستند و به تبع آن، سلامت روان را ارتقا می‌دهند و شامل دسترسی به منابع و خدمات، حمایت اجتماعی، سرمایۀ اجتماعی، تنوع فضایی، تنوع اجتماعی، تعاملات اجتماعی، ادغام محلی، فضای سبز و دسترسی به آن، احساس تعلق، هویت، عدالت در شهر، انسجام اجتماعی، سطح مشارکت، ثبات مسکونی، سرزندگی، میزان تاب‌آوری، کنترل و پیش‌بینی محیط و دید به محیط شهر (تا 10 متر) است. درخور یادآوری است در نهایت پس از بررسی اثرات و پیامدهای نهایی برنامه‌ریزی شهری درمانگر استرس ارتقای کیفیت زندگی در محیط‌های شهری به عنوان مهم‌ترین و جامع‌ترین اثر این برنامه‌ریزی شناسایی شده است.
نتیجه‌گیری
در نتیجه، با کاهش محرومیت فرهنگی و روانی، تراکم ساختمانی، اضافه بار حسی، سبک معماری مدرن، تراکم رفت و آمد (شلوغی معابر)، طراحی شهری استرس‌زا، آلودگی هوا، مهاجرت، جرم و جنایت، محرومیت اجتماعی، خشونت، محرومیت اقتصادی، اقلیت قومی بودن، تراکم جمعیتی، میزان فشار زمان و اتلاف وقت و آلودگی صوتی و افزایش دسترسی به منابع و خدمات، حمایت اجتماعی، سرمایۀ اجتماعی، تنوع فضایی، تنوع اجتماعی، تعاملات اجتماعی، ادغام محلی، فضای سبز و دسترسی به آن، احساس تعلق، هویت، عدالت در شهر، انسجام اجتماعی، سطح مشارکت، ثبات مسکونی، سرزندگی، میزان تاب‌آوری، کنترل و پیش‌بینی محیط و دید به محیط شهر (تا 10 متر) می‌توان تا حد زیادی استرس شهری را کاهش و سلامت روان شهری را ارتقا داد. این شاخص‌ها پس از بررسی جامع ادبیات نظری انتخاب شده و با توجه به تأثیراتی که بر دیگر شاخص‌ها می‌گذارند و تأثیراتی که از آن‌ها می‌گیرند همۀ شاخص‌های شناسایی‌شده را پوشش می‌دهند.

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات

عنوان مقاله [English]

Explaining the Conceptual Model of Stress Relief Urban Planning

نویسندگان [English]

  • Khatereh Moghani Rahimi 1
  • Mostafa Behzadfar 2
  • Samane Jalilisadrabad 3
1 M.A. Student, Department of Urban Planning, School of Architecture and Environmental Design, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
2 Professor, Department of Urban Planning, School of Architecture and Environmental Design, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
3 Assistant Professor, Department of Urban Planning, School of Architecture and Environmental Design, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
چکیده [English]

Introduction 
Cities are expanding at a very fast pace, especially in Northeast Africa and Southwest Asia [1]. In 2007, the world’s urban population exceeded 50% for the first time in history, and this ratio is constantly growing [2]. According to predictions made in 2050, about 70% of the world’s population will live in cities [3] and about 90% of this growth will happen in Africa and Asia [4]. Although infrastructure, socioeconomic conditions, nutrition, and health care services are better in cities than in rural areas, living in an urban environment has long been recognized as a risk factor for mental illness [5]. Considering the mentioned advantages, creating a balance between these two issues requires a better understanding of the interaction between urban life and mental health [6]. The impact of urbanization on mental health is very significant and due to the forecast of the increase in the urban population, it is likely to increase in the next few decades [1]. Considering its role as an essential component of public health, mental health is a very important issue and has profound effects on individuals, societies, and the economy [7], and its promotion is necessary to increase the quality of life and resilience of society [8]. According to the World Health Organization report, mental health disorders have become one of the biggest threats to human health in 2020. This also has consequences for economic prosperity, because stress, depression, and anxiety have a great impact on people’s work efficiency [9]. Also, one out of every five adults in the world suffers from a mental disorder [10] and 13% of global diseases have a mental origin [11]. The importance of the relationship between urban life and mental health is so great that the World Psychiatric Association has established a scientific department of urban mental health to study it further [12]. According to the national survey of mental health in Iran, 23.6% of people who have been investigated need psychological interventions and 14.6% of people suffer from anxiety disorder [13]. While few studies have addressed the potential links between aspects of the built environment and mental health, studies in this area have mostly focused on physical health [14].
Exposure to high stress and the resulting injuries are the most important factors in increasing the risk of mental disorders [15]. City residents are exposed to higher levels of stressful factors, and exposure to more stress may cause the prevalence of stress-related mental illnesses among city residents [16]. In fact, the stress of modern urban life can be a basis for developing psychosis and mental disorders [17]. In addition to being one of the important causes of physical diseases (such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and gastrointestinal diseases) and mental diseases (such as depression, schizophrenia, and isolation of people), urban stress also increases the number of moral abnormalities and reduces the security of citizens. 
Besides, the stress of the imposition of high medical costs on citizens also causes the loss of human capital in the city. For this reason, it is necessary for urban planners and designers to consider the mental peace of citizens as an important principle in their plans and designs and to avoid actions that fuel this mental confusion. In fact, considering that creating a healthy urban environment is the main priority of policy-makers [18] and urban stress is increasing in the cities of the world [19], it is necessary to formulate planned urbanization to prevent the negative effects of urban life[20]. Since the beginning of the 20th century, many studies have investigated the relationship between urbanization and stress and effective solutions to it with different approaches. But so far, no study has been done in the direction of urban planning that treats stress in a way that takes into account all the indicators that affect urban stress, discovers the most important indicators based on the connections between them, and presents a conceptual model that affects it. For this purpose, this research has been conducted to analyze the content of previous studies and identify the most important indicators, and present a conceptual model of urban planning that treats stress.
Materials and Methods
This research is a review and the research method is qualitative. Documentary and library studies were used to collect data and a content analysis method was used to analyze them. In fact, this research analyzes library documents in four basic steps using an interpretive approach and tries to identify, analyze, and explain the connections between stress-relieving urban planning indicators based on the extracted text codes.
Findings
The research findings indicate that urban mental health and urban stress have direct and indirect bilateral effects. The indicators extracted from theoretical studies are classified into two groups. The first group increases urban stress and consequently reduces urban mental health and includes cultural and mental deprivation, building density, sensory overload, modern architectural style, traffic density (busy roads), stressful urban design, air pollution, immigration, crime, social deprivation, violence, economic deprivation, being an ethnic minority, population density, amount of time pressure and waste of time and noise pollution. The second group reduces urban stress and consequently improves mental health and includes access to resources and services, social support, social capital, spatial diversity, social diversity, social interactions, local integration, green space and access to it, sense of belonging, identity, justice in the city, social cohesion, participation level, residential stability, vitality, degree of resilience, control, and prediction of the environment and visibility to the city environment (up to 10 meters). It should be mentioned that finally, after examining the final effects and consequences of urban planning, the stress treatment of improving the quality of life in urban environments has been identified as the most important and comprehensive effect of this planning.
Conclusion
As a result, by reducing cultural and psychological deprivation, building density, sensory overload, modern architectural style, traffic density (busy roads), stressful urban design, air pollution, immigration, crime, social deprivation, violence, and economic deprivation, being an ethnic minority, population density, the amount of time pressure and waste of time, noise pollution, increasing access to resources and services, social support, social capital, spatial diversity, social diversity, social interactions, local integration, green space and access to it, sense of belonging, identity, justice in the city, social cohesion, level of participation, residential stability, vitality, level of resilience, control, prediction of the environment, and visibility to the city environment (up to 10 meters) can greatly reduce urban stress and improve the urban psyche health. These indicators were selected after a comprehensive review of the theoretical literature and they cover all the identified indicators according to the effects they have on other indicators and the effects they get from them.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Content Analysis
  • Mental Health
  • Stress Relief Urban Planning
  • Urban Stress

مراجع

[1] Evans BE, Huizink AC, Greaves-Lord, K, Tulen JHM,  Roelofs K, van der Ende J, Santana G L. Urbanicity, biological stress system functioning and mental health in adolescents. Plos one 2020b;15:1-24. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228659.
[2] Nnebue C, Adinma E, Sidney-Nnebue Q. Urbanization and Health. Orient Journal of Medicine 2014;26:1-2.
[3] Adli M, Schondorf J. Macht uns die Stadt krank. Wirkung von Stadtstress auf Emotionen, Verhalten und psychische Gesundheit; Does the city make us ill? The effect of urban stress on emotions, behavior, and mental health. Bundesgesundheitsbl 2020;63:979–986. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00103-020-03185-w.
[4] Kirkbride J, Keyes K, Susser E. City Living and Psychotic Disorders-Implications of Global Heterogeneity for Theory Development. JAMA Psychiatry 2018;75:1211-1212. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.2640.
[5] Adli M. Urban stress and mental health (November 2011), https://LSECiti.es/u246d12b2; 2011 [accessed 17 July 2021].
[6] Gruebner O, Rapp MA, Adli M, Kluge U, Galea S,  Heinz A. Cities and Mental Health. Deutsches Arzteblatt international 2017;114:121–127. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2017.0121.
[7] Lloyd S, Kelly R, Kimberly G, Joshua R, Challenges of Urban Mental Health Disaster Planning. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 2005;10:695–706. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v10n03_03.
[8] World Health Organization. the European Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2020. http://www.euro.who.int/pubrequest; 2013.
[9] Larcombe DL, van Etten E, Logan A, Prescott SL, Horwitz P. High-rise apartments and urban mental health-Historical and contemporary views. Challenges 2019;10:1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/challe10020034.
[10] Helbich M. Toward dynamic urban environmental exposure assessments in mental health research. Environmental Research 2018;161:129-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.11.006.
[11] Joshua CF, Freeman C, Bazargan-Hejazi S. Environmental Interventions for Physical and Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities for Greater Los Angeles. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2019;16:1-14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122180.
[12] Caracci G. General concepts of the relationship between urban areas and mental health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 2008;21:385–390. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0b013e328303e198.
[13] Miri Taameh M. The meeting on the establishment of mental health document in Tehran province was held virtually, https://pr.tums.ac.ir; 2020[accessed 16 September 2021].
[14] Miles R, Coutts C, Mohamadi A. Neighborhood urban form, social environment, and depression. Journal of urban health : bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 2012;89:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-011-9621-2.
[15] Streit F, Haddad L, Paul T, Frank J, Schäfer A, Nikitopoulos J, Akdeniz C, Lederbogen F, Treutlein J, Witt, S, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Rietschel M, Kirsch P, Wüst S. A functional variant in the neuropeptide S receptor 1 gene moderates the influence of urban upbringing on stress processing in the amygdala. Stress 2014;17:352–361. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2014.921903.
[16] Adli M, Berger M, Brakemeier EL, Engel L, Fingerhut J, Hehl R, Heinz A, Mayer J, Mehran N, Tolaas S, Walter H, Weiland U, Stollmann J. Neurourbanistik – ein methodischer Schulterschluss zwischen Stadtplanung und Neurowissenschaften. Die Psychiatrie 2016;13:70–78. 
[17] Kennedy D, Adolphs R. Social neuroscience: Stress and the city. Nature 2011;474:452-453. https://doi.org/10.1038/474452a.
[18] Kyriakou K, Resch B. Spatial Analysis of Moments of Stress Derived from Wearable Sensor Data, Adv. Cartogr. GIScience Int 2019;2. https://doi.org/10.5194/ica-adv-2-9-2019.
[19] Maureen O. Revealed: The world’s least stressful cities, https://edition.cnn.com; 2017 [accessed 15 September 2021].
[20] Okkels N, Kristiansen C, Munk P, Sartorius N. Urban mental health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 2018;31:258-264. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000413. 
[21] Simmel j. The Metropolis and Mental Life. in the people, place, and space reader, 223-226. 
[22] Prindle RA. Health Aspects of the Urban Environment. Public Health Reports 1968;83:617-621. https://doi.org/10.2307/4593367.
[23] Milgram S. The Experience of Living in Cities. Science 1970;167:1461–1468. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.167.3924.1461. 
[24] Christmas JJ. Psychological stresses of urban living: new direction for mental health services in the inner city. Journal of the National Medical Association 1973;65:483–passim.
[25] Lazarus RS, Cohen JB. Environmental Stress. Human Behavior and Environment 1977:89–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-0808-9_3.
[26] Burton I.. Factors in urban stress. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 1990;17:79–92. 
[27] Faris REL,  Dunham HW. Mental disorders in urban areas: an ecological study of schizophrenia and other psychoses. Univ. Chicago Press 1939. 
[28] Lederbogen F, Kirsch P, Haddad L, et al. City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nature 2011;474:498–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10190.
[29] Fink, G. Stress: Definition and history. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience 2010: 549–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008045046-9.00076-0
[30] Jackson, M. (2015). (ed.) Stress in Postwar Britain, 1945–1980, Pickering and Chatto.
[31] Ghaffarian Shuai, Mehran. (2013). Designing the body of an urban square in order to improve the mental health of space users: Compilation of principles and guidelines for designing the body in order to reduce stress (Study example of Imam Reza Square, Mashhad). Master’s thesis, Yazd University, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Department of Urbanism.
[32] Shahdoost, my father. (1400). What is environmental psychology and how does it affect our business? Retrieved 27 Mehr 1401, from https://drways.com.
[33] Something, Qasim. (1380). Environmental psychology is a new science in the service of architecture and urban design. Fine arts of architecture and urban planning, 10(0). 52-67.
[34] Pykett J, Chrisinger B, Kyriakou K, et al. Developing a Citizen Social Science approach to understand urban stress and promote wellbeing in urban communities. Palgrave Commun 2020a;6. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0460-1.
[35] Abrahamyan Empson L, Baumann PS, Söderström O, Codeluppi Z, Söderström D, Conus P. Urbanicity: The need for new avenues to explore the link between urban living and psychosis. Early intervention in psychiatry 2020;14:398–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12861. 
[36] Rishi P, Khuntia G. Urban Environmental Stress and Behavioural Adaptation in Bhopal City of India. Urban Studies Research 2012;2012:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/635061.
[37] Elsamahy EM, Abd EL-Fattah R. Designing non-stressed psychological public spaces, BAU Journal: Health & Well-Being 2018;1:121-132.
[38] Miller KM, Phillips MH. Correlates of Urban Stress and Mental Health: The Impact of Social Context on Resilience. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 2005;14:46–64. https://doi.org/10.1179/105307805807066301.
[39] Ventriglio A, Torales J, Castaldelli-Maia JM, De Berardis D, Bhugra D. Urbanization and emerging mental health issues. CNS spectrums 2021;26:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852920001236. 
[40] Karimi, Mohammad. (2017). What is psychotherapy? Tehran: Nik Kitabsara Publications.
[41] Enache-Tonoiu, A. (2013). Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 9(4), 664–670. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v9i4.717.
[42] Ellett Lyn; Freeman Daniel; Garety Philippa A. (2008). The psychological effect of an urban environment on individuals with persecutory delusions: The Camberwell walk study. , 99(1-3), 77–84. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.10.027 
[43] Buttazzoni A, Doherty S, Minaker L. How Do Urban Environments Affect Young People’s Mental Health? A Novel Conceptual Framework to Bridge Public Health, Planning, and Neurourbanism. Public Health Rep. 2021 Feb 9:33354920982088. doi: 10.1177/0033354920982088. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 33563094.
[44] Coope, Jonathan; Barrett, Andy; Brown, Brian; Crossley, Mark; Raghavan, Raghu; Sivakami, Muthusamy (2020). Resilience, mental health and urban migrants: a narrative review. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 16(2), 137–159. doi:10.1108/ijmhsc-04-2019-0048 
[45] Sigmund, B; Mijatovic, M. (2019). Gesundheit in der Stadt. Retrieved 22 September 2021, from https://www.detail.de 
[46] Litman TA. Urban Sanity Understanding Urban Mental Health Impacts and How to Create Saner, Happier Cities. urbanismnext 2021. https://vtpi.org/urban-sanity.pdf. 
[47] Pykett J, Osborne T, Resch B. From Urban Stress to Neurourbanism: How Should We Research City Well-Being? Annals of the American Association of Geographers 2020b;110:1–16. https://doi.10.1080/24694452.2020.1736982.
[48] D’Acci LS. Urbanicity mental costs valuation: a review and urban-societal planning consideration. Mind Soc 2020;19:223–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11299-020-00235-3.
[49] Vargas T, Conley RE, Mittal VA.  Chronic stress, structural exposures and neurobiological mechanisms: A stimulation, discrepancy and deprivation model of psychosis. In A. Clow, & N. Smyth (Eds.), International Review of Neurobiology 2020;152:41-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.irn.2019.11.004. 
[50] Meloni A, Fornara F, Carrus G. Predicting pro-environmental behaviors in the urban context: The direct or moderated effect of urban stress, city identity, and worldviews. Cities 2019;88:83–90. https://doi.10.1016/j.cities.2019.01.001.
[51] Baumann PS, Söderström O, Abrahamyan Empson L, Söderström D, Codeluppi Z, Golay P, Birchwood M, Conus P. Urban remediation: a new recovery-oriented strategy to manage urban stress after first-episode psychosis. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 2020;55:273–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01795-7.
[52] Xie S. Quality matters: housing and the mental health of rural migrants in urban China. Housing Studies 2019;34:1422-1444. https://doi.10.1080/02673037.2019.1577956.
[53] Interdisciplinary forum neurourbanism. Charta of neurourbanism, https://neurourbanistik.de; 2018 [accessed 23 September 2021].
[54] Vojnovic I, Pearson A, Asiki G, Allen A, DeVerteuil G. Handbook of Global Urban Health, (Abingdon: Routledge, 20 May 2019 ), accessed 06 May 2022 , Routledge Handbooks Online. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315465456.
[55] Lisa R, Ash A. Mental health, subjectivity and the city: an ethnography of migrant stress in Shanghai. International Health 2019;11:7-13. https://doi.org/10.1093/inthealth/ihz029.
[56] Generaal E, Hoogendijk EO, Stam M, Henke CE, Rutters F, Oosterman M, Huisman M, Kramer SE, Elders PJM, Timmermans EJ, Lakerveld J, Koomen E, ten Have M, de Graaf R, Snijder MB, Stronks K, Willemsen G, Boomsma DI, Smit JH, Penninx BWJH. Neighbourhood characteristics, prevalence, and severity of depression: pooled analysis of eight Dutch cohort studies. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2019;215:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2019.100.
[57] Manning N. Sociology, biology and mechanisms in urban mental health. Social Theory & Health, 2018;17:1-22. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41285-018-00085-7.
[58] Evans BE, Buil JM, Burk WJ, Cillessen AHN, van Lier AC. Urbanicity is associated with behavioural and emotional problems in elementary school-Aged children. Journal of Child and Family Studies 2018;7:2193-2205. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-018-1062-z.
[59] Li J, Liu Z. Housing stress and mental health of migrant populations in urban China. Cities 2018;81:172-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2018.04.006.
[60] Knöll M, Neuheuser K, Cleff T, Rudolph-Cleff A. A tool to predict perceived urban stress in open public spaces. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science 2018;45:797–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265813516686971.
[61] Li J, Rose N. Urban social exclusion and mental health of China’s rural-urban migrants - A review and call for research. Health & Place 2017;48:20-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.08.009.
[62] Mubi Brighenti A, Pavoni A. City of unpleasant feelings. Stress, comfort and animosity in urban life. Social & Cultural Geography 2017;20:137-156. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2017.1355065.
[63] Knöll M, Neuheuser K, Vogt J, Rudolph-Cleff A. Einflussfaktoren der gebauten umwelt auf wahrgenommene aufenthaltsqualität bei der nutzung städtischer räume. Umweltpsychologie 2014;18:84–102. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270759025.
[64] Hill TD, Maimon D. Neighborhood context and mental health. In: Aneshensel C.S., Phelan J.C., Bierman A. (Eds) Handbook of the sociology of mental health. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research 2013; Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_23.
[65] Lederbogen F, Haddad L, Meyer-Lindenberg A. Urban social stress – Risk factor for mental disorders. The case of schizophrenia. Environmental Pollution 2013;183:2–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.046.
[66] Beil K, Hanes D. The influence of urban natural and built environments on physiological and psychological measures of stress--a pilot study. International journal of environmental research and public health 2013;10:1250–1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10041250.
[67] Seth P, Murray CC, Braxton ND, DiClemente RJ. The Concrete Jungle: City Stress and Substance Abuse among Young Adult African American Men. Journal of Urban Health 2012;90:307–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9716-4.
[68] Lin D, Li X, Wang B, Hong Y, Fang X, Qin X, Stanton B. Discrimination, perceived social inequity, and mental health among rural-to-urban migrants in China. Community mental health journal 2011;47:171–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-009-9278-4.
[69] Quinn K, Kaufman JS, Siddiqi A, Yeatts KB. Stress and the city: housing stressors are associated with respiratory health among low socioeconomic status Chicago children. Journal of urban health: bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 2010;87:688–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-010-9465-1.
[70] Peen J, Schoevers RA, Beekman AT, Dekker J. The current status of urban-rural differences in psychiatric disorders. Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica 2010;121:84–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01438.x.
[71] Yang T, Matthews SA. The role of social and built environments in predicting self-rated stress: A multilevel analysis in Philadelphia. Health & place 2010;16:803-810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.005.
[72] March D, Hatch SL, Morgan C, Kirkbride JB, Bresnahan M, Fearon P, Susser E. Psychosis and Place. Epidemiologic Reviews 2008;30:84-100. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxn006.
[73] Selten JP. Social defeat: risk factor for schizophrenia? The British Journal of Psychiatry 2005;187:101-102. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.187.2.101.
[74] Jaffee KD, Liu GC, Canty-Mitchell J, Qi RA, Austin J, Swigonski N. services (Washington, D.C.) 2005;56:63–69. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.1.63.
[75] Evans GW, Wells NM, Moch A. Housing and Mental Health: A Review of the Evidence and a Methodological and Conceptual Critique, Journal of social issues 2003;59:475–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00074.
[76] Caracci G, Enrique MJ. Culture and urban mental health. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 2001;24:581–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70249-5.
[77] Stansfeld S, Haines M, Brown B. Noise and health in the urban environment. Reviews on environmental health 2000;15:43–82. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh.2000.15.1-2.43.
[78] Cappon D. Urban stress. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1977;116:9–10. 
[79] Knox city council. Knox Mental Health Action Plan 2021-2025, https://www.knox.vic.gov.au ;2021 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[80] Moreland city council. Moreland municipal public health and wellbeing plan 2017- 2021, https://www.moreland.vic.gov.au; 2017 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[81] Casey city council. Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plan 2017-2021, https://www.casey.vic.gov.au; 2017 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[82] Northern grampians city council. Northern grampians Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plan 2017-2021, https://nla.gov.au; 2017 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[83] Ararat City Council. Ararat City Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plan 2013-2017, https://www.Ararat.vic.gov.au; 2013 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[84] Victoria state government. Victorian Public Health and Wellbeing Plan (2011-2015). https://www2.health.vic.gov.au; 2011 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[85] Victoria state government. Victorian Public Health and Wellbeing Plan (2015-2019). https://www2.health.vic.gov.au; 2015 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[86] Victoria state government. Victorian Public Health and Wellbeing Plan (2019-2023). https://www2.health.vic.gov.au; 2019 [accessed 13 March 2020].
[87] Lewis C, Sturgill S. Comment: Healing in the Urban Environment A Person/Plant Viewpoint. Journal of the American Planning Association 1979;45:330-338. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944367908976971.
[88] Joshua CF, Freeman C, Bazargan-Hejazi S. Environmental Interventions for Physical and Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities for Greater Los Angeles. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2019;16:1-14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122180.
[89] Le A, Payne J, Clarke C, Kelly M, Prudenziati F, Armsby E, Penacchio O, Wilkins A. Discomfort from urban scenes: Metabolic consequences. Landscape and Urban Planning 2017;160:61-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.12.003.
[90] Haines M, Stansfeld S, Job R, Berglund B, Head J. Chronic aircraft noise exposure, stress responses, mental health and cognitive performance in school children. Psychological Medicine 2001;31:265-277. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701003282.
[91] Forouhar A, Kheyroddin R. The Impact of Commercialization on the Spatial Quality of Residential Neighbourhoods: Evidence from Nasr Neighbourhood of Tehran. Geographical Planning of Space 2016;6:63-84. [In Persian]
[92] Franz G, Wiener JM. From space syntax to space semantics: a behaviourally and perceptually oriented methodology for the efficient description of the geometry and topology of environments. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 2008;35:574–592. https://doi.org/10.1068/b33050.
[93] Scheydt S, Müller Staub M, Frauenfelder F, Nielsen GH, Behrens J, Needham I. Sensory overload: A concept analysis. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 2017;26:110–120. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12303. 
[94] Young J. Personal Knowledge Capital-Social capital and trust for a web environment, 1st Edition - July 18, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-84334-700-2.50007-5.
[95] Shirkhani M, Vaseiezadeh N. Social Capital and economic development: a comparative study of Iran and south Korea. Political Quarterly 2011;41:213-232. [In Persian]
[96] Schwarzer C. Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA. 2004.  https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-657410-3/00414-1.
[97] Taylor PJ, Gooding P, Wood AM, Tarrier N. The role of defeat and entrapment in depression, anxiety, and suicide. Psychological Bulletin 2011;137:391–420. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022935.
[98] Allen B. Culture of Social Sciences. Translated by Bagher Sarokhani, Tehran: Kayhan Publications;1996. 
[99] Ebadollahi H, Piri A, Movaghar Narbin M. Stigma and Social Identity: The Case of Individuals with Visible Physical Disabilities in Rasht. Journal of Social Problems of Iran 2012;2:195-222. [In Persian]
[100] Thorns DC. The Transformation of Cities. Urban Theory and Urban Life, Red Globe Press London. 2002. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4039-9031-0.
[101] Amiri M, Vedadhir A. Stigma and Discrimination: Two Vital Social Oppressions Influencing on Disclosure of HIV Status by Patients with HIV / AIDS. Journal of Social Problems of Iran 2018;8:1-23. https://doi.org/10.22059/ijsp.2018.65051. [In Persian]
[102] Chalabi M, Amir Kafi M. Multilevel Analysis of Social Isolation, Iranian Journal of Sociology 2004;5:3-31. [In Persian]
[103] Jevtic M. Building capacity for public urban mental health-example of Reflecting Citizens workshops, European Journal of Public Health 2020;30. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa165.975.
[104] Caracci G. Urban Mental Health: An International Survey. International Journal of Mental Health 2006;35:39–45. https://doi.org/10.2753/imh0020-7411350103.
[105] Alcock I, White MP, Wheeler BW, Fleming LE, Depledge MH. Longitudinal Effects on Mental Health of Moving to Greener and Less Green Urban Areas. Environmental Science & Technology 2014;48:1247–1255. https://doi.org/10.1021/es403688w.
[106] Galea S, Freudenberg N, Vlahov D. Cities and population health. Social science & medicine 2005;60:1017–1033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.036.
[107] Saberifar R. Investigate the Relationship between Urban Furniture and Utilization of Urban Spaces with Mental Health. Health Research Journal 2018;3:89-94. https://doi.org/10.29252/hrjbaq.3.2.89. [In Persian]
[108] Amari H. Psychology, City and Daily Life. Tehran: Tisa Publications; 2014. [In Persian]
[109] Farahani F. Use the power of colours to create life, https://sookhtejet.com; [accessed 2 September 2020]. [In Persian]

فایل ها

سابقه مقاله

  • تاریخ دریافت: 04 بهمن 1401
  • تاریخ بازنگری: 23 اسفند 1401
  • تاریخ پذیرش: 24 اسفند 1401

هم رسانی

ارجاع به این مقاله

آمار