Urban Economics and Planning

Urban Economics and Planning

Analyzing the Role of Physical Structures and Environmental Quality in Enhancing Residential Resilience to Reduce Human Consequences of Crises: A Case Study of Ekbatan Town, Tehran

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Mohammadreza Etminanmehr 1
Ali Asgari 2
Ali Akbari 3
1 Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Architecture, Kha. C, Islamic Azad University, Khalkhal, Iran
2 Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.
3 Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture CR, C. Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
10.22034/uep.2025.533982.1666
Abstract
Introduction 
Recent studies suggest that residential environments with favorable perceptual and aesthetic qualities can enhance residents’ psychological resilience during emergencies, strengthen social cohesion, and thereby facilitate participatory, caring, and supportive actions in the face of crises (Al Humaiqani et al., 2022). Accordingly, a simultaneous examination of physical structures and environmental quality is essential, not only from a functional perspective but also from the viewpoint of combined resilience. Focusing solely on structural resistance without considering the living and psychological conditions of residents cannot fully explain the performance of residential areas during crises. Settlements designed through systematic and foresighted approaches possess internal capacities to absorb, contain, and reorganize in response to environmental and social disruptions. These capacities manifest in risk-adaptive architectural patterns, multifunctional open spaces, logical access networks, and the enhancement of neighborhood attachment and cohesion. Among Iranian residential complexes, Ekbatan Town in Tehran—one of the most prominent modernist high-density developments—provides a suitable context for an empirical investigation of these concepts. Its diverse block structures, inter-building open spaces, organized street layout, and relatively stable environmental qualities make it a compelling case for exploring the linkage between physical design, environmental quality, and residential resilience. The main research question is therefore how and to what extent physical structures and ecological quality in large-scale urban housing complexes such as Ekbatan influence the enhancement of residential resilience and the reduction of human consequences of crises.
Materials and Methods
This study employed a mixed-methods design, comprising both quantitative and qualitative components. In the quantitative phase, structural equation modeling (SEM) with a partial least squares approach (PLS-SEM) was employed. The statistical population comprised all residents of Ekbatan Town, with an estimated population of 51,245. Using Cochran’s formula and a 95% confidence level, a sample size of 383 residents was determined. Stratified random sampling proportional to the population of the three phases of the complex was used to ensure balanced representation. Data were collected through a structured, researcher-designed questionnaire whose content validity was confirmed by experts in urban planning, physical design, and crisis management. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). Data analysis was performed in SmartPLS in two stages: validation of the measurement model (CFA, AVE, CR, HTMT) and evaluation of the structural model (path coefficients, R², Q², f², and overall goodness-of-fit indices).    
The qualitative phase aimed to complement and validate the questionnaire findings through field investigation. This included direct observation, on-site documentation, and analytical photography of the three phases of Ekbatan. The collected images captured actual conditions of physical and environmental elements such as block density, building orientation, emergency access routes, open spaces, and stairways. Qualitative analysis, conducted through an interpretive approach focusing on architectural and urban design criteria, was used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the complex in relation to residential resilience. The integration of quantitative and qualitative data ensured that technical and physical indicators were assessed not only through residents’ perceptions but also through tangible field evidence, thereby enhancing the validity and comprehensiveness of the results.
Findings
The structural equation modeling revealed that both physical structures and environmental quality exert a direct and positive effect on residential resilience. Residential resilience, in turn, plays a key mediating role in reducing the human consequences of crises. Path coefficients and model fit indices were statistically significant and acceptable. Key elements with the highest impact included spatial configuration, emergency accessibility, infrastructure quality, environmental comfort, safety and perceived security, as well as the availability of active public spaces. A comparative analysis across the three phases of Ekbatan revealed that phases with more open designs, more organized street networks, and higher environmental quality exhibited greater resilience. In contrast, phases characterized by higher density, weaker emergency services, or spatial blockages showed greater vulnerability in crisis scenarios. These findings align with domestic research—such as Maghdesi et al. (2024) highlighting the role of biophilic design in enhancing resilience in Tehran International Tower, and Habibzadeh (2025) emphasizing the effects of physical deterioration and street width on neighborhood resilience in Urmia—as well as international studies, including Ghaffarian et al. (2025) in Istanbul and Mulligan et al. (2022) on green and adaptive infrastructures, thereby reinforcing the global relevance of the present results.
Conclusion
This research demonstrates that enhancing residential resilience in high-density urban contexts requires simultaneous attention to physical, environmental, and social dimensions. Functional physical elements can mitigate the human impacts of crises only when accompanied by appropriate environmental quality. Based on the findings, four key strategies are recommended for strengthening residential resilience in Ekbatan and similar dense housing developments: (1) upgrading infrastructure and redesigning street hierarchies to improve emergency access and modernize essential facilities; (2) improving environmental quality through the development of active public spaces, safe lighting, and better maintenance services; (3) implementing soft interventions such as resident training, strengthening informal social networks, and fostering a stronger sense of place; and (4) revising the physical patterns of high-rise residential complexes with an emphasis on spatial resilience principles. The novelty of this research lies in the integration of quantitative structural modeling with qualitative field evidence, as well as in the comparative analysis of the different phases of Ekbatan, providing a localized and practical framework for assessing residential resilience in dense Iranian urban fabrics.
Keywords
Ekbatan Town
Environmental Quality
Human Consequences of Crises
Physical Structures
Residential Resilience

Subjects

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Urban Economics and Planning
Volume 6, Issue 4
Winter 2026
Pages 220-243

  • Receive Date 12 July 2025
  • Revise Date 23 September 2025
  • Accept Date 24 September 2025